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Background  The evolutionary history of southern South American organisms has been strongly influenced by Pleistocene climate oscillations. Amphibians are good models to evaluate hypotheses about the influence of these climate cycles on population structure and diversification of the biota, because they are sensitive to environmental changes and have restricted dispersal capabilities. We test hypotheses regarding putative forest refugia and expansion events associated with past climatic changes in the wood frog  Batrachyla leptopus  distributed along ∼1,000 km of length including glaciated and non-glaciated areas in southwestern Patagonia.    Methods  Using three mitochondrial regions ( D-loop ,  cyt b , and  coI ) and two nuclear loci ( pomc  and  crybA1 ), we conducted multilocus phylogeographic analyses and species distribution modelling to gain insights of the evolutionary history of this species. Intraspecific genealogy was explored with maximum likelihood, Bayesian, and phylogenetic network approaches. Diversification time was assessed using molecular clock models in a Bayesian framework, and demographic scenarios were evaluated using approximate Bayesian computation (ABC) and extended Bayesian skyline plot (EBSP). Species distribution models (SDM) were reconstructed using climatic and geographic data.    Results  Population structure and genealogical analyses support the existence of four lineages distributed north to south, with moderate to high phylogenetic support (Bootstrap > 70%; BPP > 0.92). The diversification time of  B. leptopus ’ populations began at ∼0.107 mya. The divergence between A and B lineages would have occurred by the late Pleistocene, approximately 0.068 mya, and divergence between C and D lineages was approximately 0.065 mya. The ABC simulations indicate that lineages coalesced at two different time periods, suggesting the presence of at least two glacial refugia and a postglacial colonization route that may have generated two southern lineages ( p  = 0.93, type I error: <0.094, type II error: 0.134). EBSP, mismatch distribution and neutrality indexes suggest sudden population expansion at ∼0.02 mya for all lineages. SDM infers fragmented distributions of  B. leptopus  associated with Pleistocene glaciations. Although the present populations of  B. leptopus  are found in zones affected by the last glacial maximum (∼0.023 mya), our analyses recover an older history of interglacial diversification (0.107–0.019 mya). In addition, we hypothesize two glacial refugia and three interglacial colonization routes, one of which gave rise to two expanding lineages in the south.

peerj

Phylogeographic analysis and species distribution modelling of the wood frog<i>Batrachyla leptopus</i>(Batrachylidae) reveal interglacial diversification in south western Patagonia

Phylogeographic analysis and species distribution modelling of the wood frogBatrachyla leptopus(Batrachylidae) reveal interglacial diversification in south western Patagonia