T cell homeostasis in tolerance and immunity

The size of the peripheral T cell pool is remarkably stable throughout life, reflecting precise regulation of cellular survival, proliferation, and apoptosis. Homeostatic proliferation refers to the process by which T cells spontaneously proliferate in a lymphopenic host. The critical signals driving this expansion are “space,” contact with self‐major histocompatibility complex (MHC)/peptide complexes, and cytokine stimulation. A number of studies have delineated an association between T cell lymphopenia, compensatory homeostatic expansion, and the development of diverse autoimmune syndromes. In the nonobese diabetic mouse model of type 1 diabetes, lymphopenia‐induced homeostatic expansion fuels the generation of islet‐specific T cells. Excess interleukin‐21 facilitates T cell cycling but limited survival, resulting in recurrent stimulation of T cells specific for self‐peptide/MHC complexes. Indeed, data from several experimental models of autoimmunity indicate that a full T cell compartment restrains homeostatic expansion of self‐reactive cells that could otherwise dominate the repertoire. This review describes the mechanisms that govern T cell homeostatic expansion and outlines the evidence that lymphopenia presents a risk for development of autoimmune disease.