Entropy Sources in Equilibrium Conditions over a Tropical Ocean

Confusion has existed as to sources of entropy due to irreversible processes in the atmosphere, the total of which matches the export of entropy by radiation. What is the mechanical efficiency of convection? For an ideal tropical oceanic system in radiative–convective equilibrium, relative magnitudes of sources of entropy are reviewed—from both observations and numerical model results. Recycling of moisture is shown to be important. Leading terms are those relating to evaporation of precipitation, water loading by falling precipitation, and mixing of unsaturated parcels of air, contributing roughly 37%, 30%, and 15% of the total irreversible production of entropy, respectively. Evaporation from the surface accounts for 11%. The remaining 7% is due to turbulent kinetic energy, generation of gravity waves, and sensible heating at the surface. A mechanical efficiency of conversion of heat supply at the surface into kinetic energy of the direct circulation, ≈2.0%, is obtained after the budget study. The leading contribution to the conversion is due to the effect of hydrometeors. Drag of hydrometeors is split into two components based on relative contributions of form drag plus water loading (50%) and frictional drag (50%); however, only the former contributes to the direct circulation. The contribution of turbulent kinetic energy is found to be small. Results from the budget study are found to correspond with the finding of a threshold in values of convective available potential energy by Roff and Yano, and with numerical results from a three-dimensional model of convective equilibrium by Shutts and Gray.