Obeying, Joining, Following, Resisting, and Other Processes in the Milgram Studies, and in the Holocaust and Other Genocides: Situations, Personality, and Bystanders

Stanley Milgram was motivated to show how something as horrible as the Holocaust could happen. To what extent does his research provide understanding of this? This article reviews a conception of the origins of genocide and other mass violence, based on case studies of actual instances, ranging from the Holocaust to the genocide in Rwanda and great violence in the Congo, in which psychological and social science principles were applied to historical data. This analysis and conception shows that a multiplicity of societal conditions and cultural characteristics together lead to group violence. Under certain societal and cultural conditions, many people rather than obey, seek, and join, and then subsequently follow, leaders, and groups. However, one cultural characteristic that is usually present and is relevant to Milgram's work, strong “authority orientation,” promotes the tendency to obedience and reduces the likelihood of resistance. The article also discusses the multiplicity of influences present both in Milgram's experiments and other violence‐producing situations, which includes people following rules of conventional behavior, and the multiplicity of psychological processes that arise, and questions some interpretations of Milgram's findings. It discusses the neglected but important role of personality, and the potential inherent in socialization and education to promote inclusive caring and resistance to violence producing situations. It points to the great potential of bystanders, their “authority,” in preventing violent behavior.