The unknown epistemology of E. C. Tolman

E. C. Tolman has been widely recognized for two distinct contributions to psychology. One was his methodological account of the ‘intervening variable’, understood as an operationally respectable method of introducing theoretical terms into behaviourist psychology. The second was his use of ‘purposive’ concepts in his substantive theorizing ‐ concepts such as the cognitive map. Two distinct and mutually antagonistic groups of critics have argued that Tolman's methodology was incompatible with his substantive theory. One of these groups included Tolman's contemporary behaviourist opponents. The second is found amongst modern philosophical anti‐behaviourists. The explanation of this irony is that neither his old opponents nor his new critics adequately understand Tolman's epistemology, which is realist, not operationalist. Adequately understood, Tolman's epistemology and substantive theory are not only consistent, but remarkably similar to modern cognitive psychology.