Mechanisms of Perinatal Cerebral Injury in Fetus and Newborn

A bstract : Cerebral hypoxia in the fetus and newborn results in neonatal morbidity and mortality as well as long‐term sequelae such as mental retardation, seizure disorders, and cerebral palsy. In the developing brain, determinants of susceptibility to hypoxia should include the lipid composition of the brain cell membrane, the rate of lipid peroxidation, the presence of antioxidant defenses, and the development and modulation of excitatory amino acid neurotransmitter receptors such as the N ‐methyl‐d‐aspartate (NMDA) receptor, the intracellular Ca 2+ , and the intranuclear Ca 2+ ‐dependent mechanisms. In addition to the developmental status of these cellular components, the response of these potential mechanisms to hypoxia determines the fate of the hypoxic brain cell in the developing brain. Using electron spin resonance spectroscopy of alpha‐phenyl‐ N ‐tert‐butyl‐nitrone spin adducts, studies from our laboratory demonstrated that tissue hypoxia results in increased free radical generation in the cortex of fetal guinea pigs and newborn piglets. Pretreatment with MgSO 4 significantly decreased the hypoxia‐induced increase in free radical generation in the term fetal brain. We also showed that brain tissue hypoxia modifies the NMDA receptor ion‐channel recognition and modulatory sites. Furthermore, a higher increase in NMDA receptor agonist‐dependent Ca 2+ in synaptosomes was demonstrated. The increase in intracellular Ca 2+ may activate several enzymatic pathways such as phospholipase A 2 and metabolism of archidonic acid by cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase, conversion of xanthine dehydrogenase to xanthine oxidase by proteases, and activation of nitric oxide synthase. Using inhibitors of each of these enzymes such as cyclooxygenase (indomethacin), lipoxygenase (nordihydroguaiaretic acid), xanthine oxidase (allopurinol), and nitric oxide synthase ( N ‐nitro‐l‐arginine), studies have shown that these enzyme reactions result in oxygen free radical generation, membrane peroxidation, and cell membrane dysfunction in the hypoxic brain. Specifically, generation of nitric oxide free radicals during hypoxia may lead to nitration and nitrosylation of specific membrane proteins and receptors, resulting in dysfunction of receptors and enzymes. We conclude that hypoxia‐induced modification of the NMDA receptor leading to increased intracellular Ca 2+ results in free radical generation and cell injury. We suggest that during hypoxia the increased intracellular Ca 2+ may lead to increased intranuclear Ca 2+ concentration and alter nuclear events including transcription of specific apoptotic genes and activation of endonucleases, resulting in programmed cell death.