THE IMPACT OF TREE SQUIRRELS ( TAMIASCIURUS ) ON LIMBER PINE SEED DISPERSAL ADAPTATIONS

Tree squirrels ( Tamiasciurus ) are important selective agents on conifer reproductive strategies (Smith 1970, 1975). Although this is well established for wind‐dispersed pines, the impact of tree squirrels on bird‐dispersed pines has been largely ignored. I assessed the impact of tree squirrels on the allocation of reproductive energy in the bird‐dispersed limber pine ( Pinus flexilis ) by comparing its cone and seed traits from three sites in the Rocky Mountains where tree squirrels ( Tamiasciurus ) are present to those from three mountain ranges in the Great Basin where tree squirrels are absent. As predicted, differences between the two regions in individual cone and seed traits are consistent with the hypothesis that tree squirrels are important selective agents on these traits. In the absence of tree squirrels, limber pine allocates more than twice as much energy to kernel compared with that invested in putative seed defenses (cone, resin, and seed coat) as does limber pine where tree squirrels are present. Such a large difference is particularly striking, because tree squirrels may have become extinct in the Great Basin in only the last 12,000 yr. Although many factors influence the allocation of energy to cones and seeds, no single factor other than the presence of tree squirrels is compatible with the large and consistent differences between limber pine in the Rocky Mountains and Great Basin. These results show that tree squirrels are an important constraint on the evolution of cone and seed traits that promote the dispersal of seeds by birds.