PHAGE‐MEDIATED SELECTION AND THE EVOLUTION AND MAINTENANCE OF RESTRICTION‐MODIFICATION

Restriction‐modification (R‐M) was discovered because it provides bacteria with immunity to phage infection. But, is phage‐mediated selection the sole mechanism responsible for the evolution and maintenance of these ubiquitous and multiply evolved systems? In an effort to answer this question, we have performed experiments with laboratory populations of E. coli and phage and computer simulations. We consider two ecological situations whereby phage‐mediated selection could favor R‐M immunity; i) when bacteria with a novel R‐M system invade communities of phage‐sensitive bacteria in which there are one or more species of phage, and ii) when bacteria colonize bacterial‐free habitats in which phage are present. The results of our experiments indicate that in established communities of bacteria and phage, the advantage R‐M provides an invading population of bacteria is ephemeral. Within short order, mutants resistant (refractory) to the phage evolve in the dominant population and subsequently in the invading population. The outcome of competition then depends on the relative fitness of the resistant states of these bacterial clones, rather than R‐M. As a consequence of sequential selection for independent mutants, this rapid evolution of resistance occurs even when two and three species of phage are present. While in our experiments resistance also evolved when bacteria colonized new habitats in which phage were present, a novel R‐M system greatly augmented the likelihood of their becoming established. We interpret the results of this study as support for the hypothesis that the latter, colonization selection , may play an important role in the evolution and maintenance of restriction‐modification. However, we also see these results and other observations we discuss as questioning whether protection against phage is the unique biological role of restriction‐modification.