The continuum normalization method for quantification of X‐ray spectra in biological microanalysis. 1. Generalized bremsstrahlung production cross‐sections and analysis using standards

The thin self‐supporting biological specimens used for quantitative X‐ray microanalysis are problematical because the sections are most unlikely to be uniform in thickness or density, so the intensities of the characteristic lines alone are not a good measure of composition. The method developed to overcome these problems was introduced by T. A. Hall in 1971 and uses the bremsstrahlung or continuum intensity recorded in the X‐ray spectrum to normalize each characteristic line, and hence is frequently referred to as the continuum normalization (CN) procedure.  Reformulating the CN method of quantification in terms of generalized cross‐sections and calculating more accurate values of bremsstrahlung production using a formula allows us a better understanding of the options open to the analyst of biological thin sections by which the errors in the measurement may be reduced. If one chooses to use the original Hall (1971) method using Kramers cross‐sections, the window measuring the continuum for normalization should be set in the 4–7 keV region for typical scanning electron microscope and microprobe beam energies, 20–40 kV, and above 10 keV for transmission electron microscope energies of 80 kV and above. Although it is clear that peak counts must not contribute to the white count, the window should be as wide as possible to reduce statistical errors.