Review of non‐target hazards associated with rodenticide use in the USA 1

Relatively few field studies have been conducted to evaluate hazards to wildlife from rodenticide use. In the USA, field studies have been conducted on both acute and chronic compounds, including zinc phosphide, strychnine, 1080 (sodium monofluoroacetate), and the anticoagulants diphacinone and brodifacoum. Techniques employed in these studies have included carcass counts, direct counts, indirect counts, nest site monitoring, radiotelemetry, habitat and diet evaluation, necropsy, and residue analysis. Although zinc phosphide generally is not secondarily hazardous, it can pose primary hazards, especially to seed‐eating and gallinaceous birds and waterfowl. Strychnine can pose primary hazards, such as to seed‐eating birds; secondary poisoning may be minimal unless predators consume stomach or cheek‐pouch contents of poisoned prey. 1080 can result in primary poisoning, but it especially can pose a secondary hazard to mammalian predators; the risk to raptors is minimal. Anticoagulants are toxic both primarily and secondarily; they can pose a substantial hazard to raptors. Gallinaceous birds, however, are quite resistant to them. Hazards associated with any one rodenticide may vary significantly depending upon use pattern (e.g. commensal vs field). Environmental concerns over rodenticide hazards to wildlife are increasing greatly and will affect future registrations.