Treatment of congestive heart failure‐state of the art and future trends.

1. Cardiac failure is a clinical syndrome of symptoms and signs, which can be confirmed by imaging or invasive haemodynamic techniques. It may be caused by systolic or diastolic dysfunction, but systolic dysfunction rarely occurs alone. It is important to ascertain the degree to which each contributes, and the precise aetiology of the condition, particularly in relation to surgically correctable lesions. 2. Non‐pharmacological approaches including weight loss, salt restriction and lifestyle changes may be beneficial in some patients, and diuretics, which reduce the load on the heart, are the traditional baseline therapy. 3. Digitalis has been used where problems with contractility predominate, but its beneficial effect has been disputed, and expectations of improvement in patients in sinus rhythm should not be too high. 4. Vasodilators have been considered as the next line of treatment. Arteriolar dilators tend to increase cardiac output, but have little effect on pulmonary artery wedge pressure, and venodilators tend to have the opposite effect. Probably both actions are necessary and angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, which have both, have proved effective in terms of symptoms and survival. 5. Various other inotropic agents have been tried. Phosphodiesterase inhibitors improve exercise tolerance, but may increase the probability of serious arrhythmias, already a significant cause of sudden death. beta 1‐ partial adrenoceptor agonists such as xamoterol have shown some promise, and anti‐arrhythmic therapy has also been considered. 6. Drugs which prevent progression of myocardial damage would prove a great advance, and beta‐adrenoceptor antagonists and calcium channel blockers appear to have considerable potential in this area.