Evidence That the Gene–Environment Interactions Underlying Youth Conduct Problems Vary Across Development

Gene–environment interactions (G × E) are thought to constitute a core mechanism through which genes influence youth conduct problems. Although biometric G × E studies have yielded provocative leads, two interrelated issues have yet to be meaningfully considered. First, most work has been focused on the diathesis‐stress model of G × E, in which genetic risk is amplified following exposure to an environmental pathogen. Although this form of G × E appears to be important, other possible instantiations of G × E exist. For example, in bioecological G × E, deleterious environments amplify environmental influences on the outcome. Second, conduct problems change dramatically from childhood to adolescence in that high levels of physical aggression give way to high levels of nonaggressive delinquency. As such, researchers must consider development to understand G × E. I consider both of these issues in relation to one another to encourage additional research on the development of G × E.