Unlike fellows – a review of primate–non‐primate associations

Throughout many regions of the tropics, non‐primate animals – mainly birds and mammals – have been observed to follow primate groups and to exploit dropped food and flushed prey. The anecdotal nature of most of the numerous reports on these primate–non‐primate associations ( PNPA s) may obscure the biological significance of such associations. We review the existing literature and test predictions concerning the influence of primate traits (body size, activity patterns, dietary strategies, habitat, group size) on the occurrence of PNPA s. Furthermore, we examine the influence of non‐primates' dietary strategies on the occurrence of PNPA s, and the distribution of benefits and costs. We detected a strong signal in the geographic distribution of PNPA s, with a larger number of such associations in the Neotropics compared to Africa and Asia. Madagascar lacks PNPA s altogether. Primate body size, activity patterns, habitat and dietary strategies as well as non‐primate dietary strategies affect the occurrence of PNPAs , while primate group size did not play a role. Benefits are asymmetrically distributed and mainly accrue to non‐primates. They consist of foraging benefits through the consumption of dropped leaves and fruits and flushed prey, and anti‐predation benefits through eavesdropping on primate alarm calls and vigilance. Where quantitative information is available, it has been shown that benefits for non‐primates can be substantial. The majority of PNPA s can thus be categorized as cases of commensalism, while mutualism is very rare. Our review provides evidence that the ecological function of primates extends beyond their manifold interactions with plants, but may remain underestimated.