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Spatio‐temporal assessment of illicit drug use at large scale: evidence from 7 years of international wastewater monitoring
Author(s) -
GonzálezMariño Iria,
BazLomba Jose Antonio,
Alygizakis Nikiforos A.,
AndrésCosta Maria Jesús,
Bade Richard,
Bannwarth Anne,
Barron Leon P.,
Been Frederic,
Benaglia Lisa,
Berset JeanDaniel,
Bijlsma Lubertus,
Bodík Igor,
Brenner Asher,
Brock Andreas L.,
Burgard Daniel A.,
Castrignanò Erika,
Celma Alberto,
Christophoridis Christophoros E.,
Covaci Adrian,
Delémont Olivier,
Voogt Pim,
Devault Damien A.,
Dias Mário J.,
Emke Erik,
Esseiva Pierre,
FattaKassinos Despo,
Fedorova Ganna,
Fytianos Konstantinos,
Gerber Cobus,
Grabic Roman,
GraciaLor Emma,
Grüner Stefan,
Gunnar Teemu,
Hapeshi Evroula,
Heath Ester,
Helm Björn,
Hernández Félix,
Kankaanpaa Aino,
Karolak Sara,
KasprzykHordern Barbara,
KrizmanMatasic Ivona,
Lai Foon Yin,
Lechowicz Wojciech,
Lopes Alvaro,
López de Alda Miren,
LópezGarcía Ester,
Löve Arndís S. C.,
Mastroianni Nicola,
McEneff Gillian L.,
Montes Rosa,
Munro Kelly,
Nefau Thomas,
Oberacher Herbert,
O'Brien Jake W.,
Oertel Reinhard,
Olafsdottir Kristin,
Picó Yolanda,
Plósz Benedek G.,
Polesel Fabio,
Postigo Cristina,
Quintana José Benito,
Ramin Pedram,
Reid Malcolm J.,
Rice Jack,
Rodil Rosario,
SalgueiroGonzález Noelia,
Schubert Sara,
Senta Ivan,
Simões Susana M.,
Sremacki Maja M.,
Styszko Katarzyna,
Terzic Senka,
Thomaidis Nikolaos S.,
Thomas Kevin V.,
Tscharke Ben J.,
Udrisard Robin,
Nuijs Alexander L. N.,
Yargeau Viviane,
Zuccato Ettore,
Castiglioni Sara,
Ort Christoph
Publication year - 2020
Publication title -
addiction
Language(s) - English
Resource type - Journals
SCImago Journal Rank - 2.424
H-Index - 193
eISSN - 1360-0443
pISSN - 0965-2140
DOI - 10.1111/add.14767
Subject(s) - benzoylecgonine , methamphetamine , mdma , amphetamine , wastewater , population , medicine , environmental health , toxicology , environmental science , pharmacology , metabolite , biology , environmental engineering , dopamine
Background and aims Wastewater‐based epidemiology is an additional indicator of drug use that is gaining reliability to complement the current established panel of indicators. The aims of this study were to: (i) assess spatial and temporal trends of population‐normalized mass loads of benzoylecgonine, amphetamine, methamphetamine and 3,4‐methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in raw wastewater over 7 years (2011–17); (ii) address overall drug use by estimating the average number of combined doses consumed per day in each city; and (iii) compare these with existing prevalence and seizure data. Design Analysis of daily raw wastewater composite samples collected over 1 week per year from 2011 to 2017. Setting and Participants Catchment areas of 143 wastewater treatment plants in 120 cities in 37 countries. Measurements Parent substances (amphetamine, methamphetamine and MDMA) and the metabolites of cocaine (benzoylecgonine) and of Δ 9 ‐tetrahydrocannabinol (11‐nor‐9‐carboxy‐Δ 9 ‐tetrahydrocannabinol) were measured in wastewater using liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Daily mass loads (mg/day) were normalized to catchment population (mg/1000 people/day) and converted to the number of combined doses consumed per day. Spatial differences were assessed world‐wide, and temporal trends were discerned at European level by comparing 2011–13 drug loads versus 2014–17 loads. Findings Benzoylecgonine was the stimulant metabolite detected at higher loads in southern and western Europe, and amphetamine, MDMA and methamphetamine in East and North–Central Europe. In other continents, methamphetamine showed the highest levels in the United States and Australia and benzoylecgonine in South America. During the reporting period, benzoylecgonine loads increased in general across Europe, amphetamine and methamphetamine levels fluctuated and MDMA underwent an intermittent upsurge. Conclusions The analysis of wastewater to quantify drug loads provides near real‐time drug use estimates that globally correspond to prevalence and seizure data.