Beware of hitchhiking ticks? Clarifying the variable roles of bird species in tick movement along migratory routes

Ticks are blood‐feeding parasites which act as major vectors for various pathogenic microorganisms affecting both animal and human health. Hard ticks are known to move passively (i.e. ‘hitchhike') on migratory birds as they transit between breeding and non‐breeding grounds. This potentially leads to exchange and establishment of non‐endemic tick species in novel environments. However, it is not yet clear if all migratory bird taxa play an equal role in movement of specific tick species, especially outside of medically important tick taxa. To clarify these interactions, we performed a systematic literature review regarding primary data of ticks moving on migratory birds within the African–Western Palearctic flyways. In total, 35 studies were found which showed 123 bird species from 37 families and 12 orders connected to potential movement of 30 tick species representing six genera ( Amblyomma , Dermacentor , Haemaphysalis , Hyalomma , Ixodes , Rhipicephalus ). Most tick species did not show high abundance for any bird species, or, if they did, only on very few. Only Ixodes ricinus and Hyalomma marginatum were estimated to be carried at above average burdens by multiple bird species. This could indicate an increased likelihood of these species to be moved during migration. Specific tick species or whole genera were only found in certain migratory seasons as expected based on their geographic distributions. Even so, species found in both migratory seasons did not differ in their estimated abundances on birds between seasons. This result could suggest that tick abundance on migrating birds is not always a direct result of geographic distribution and may suggest an understudied importance of stopover sites towards potential tick introduction or turnover. Taken together, the results presented here provide guiding information for future analyses integrating individual level variation into the current understanding of tick movement with migratory birds.