Numerical modeling of frontal and basal accretion at collisional margins

We investigate the deformation of orogenic wedges that form in the early stages of continent‐continent collisions using a two‐dimensional numerical model limited to the upper lithosphere. Our models show that deformation at the plate margins is influenced by rheology, surface processes, and the balance between inward mass flux and outward subduction flux, as controlled by the subduction load (which represents the effects of slab pull and resistive forces) and flexural downbending. We find three characteristic deformation modes: (1) near‐pure subduction with little or no accretion; (2) frontal accretion with development of an accretionary wedge built up by offscraping of the sediment layer at shallow depth; and (3) independent frontal and basal accretion where a retrothrust allows stacking of basement nappes at crustal to mantle depths. Near‐pure subduction is enabled for “ordinary‐rheology” materials, characterized by brittle and viscous material behavior (approximating a “Christmas tree‐type” depth profile), and almost zero friction along the subduction shear zone. Frontal accretion occurs when slightly increased friction along the subduction shear zone allows offscraping of the sediment layer from the subducting plate. Independent frontal and basal accretion develops in strong‐rheology models with an almost fully brittle material behavior. Major surface erosion or a reduction of the subduction load promote the development of large basement nappes. Frontal accretion is favored by major sedimentation during convergence, a large backstop, and in the case of a lateral transition from a “strong‐rheology” to an “ordinary‐rheology” subducting plate. Our numerical models develop first‐order characteristics as observed in natural orogenic wedges, for example upper crustal nappe stacks, frontal and basal accretion, or extension in the core of an orogen. Frontal and basal accretion are interdependent, and tend to stabilize the subduction system.