Nucleation and Growth of PbBrF Crystals at the Liquid Mercury–Electrolyte Interface Studied by Operando X-ray Scattering

Detailed in operando studies of electrochemically induced PbBrF deposition at the liquid mercury/liquid electrolyte interface are presented. The nucleation and growth were monitored using time-resolved X-ray diffraction and reflectivity combined with electrochemical measurements, revealing a complex potential-dependent behavior. PbBrF deposition commences at potentials above -0.7 V with the rapid formation of an ultrathin adlayer of one unit cell thickness, on top of which (001)-oriented three-dimensional crystallites are formed. Two potential regimes are identified. At low overpotentials, slow growth of a low surface density film of large crystals is observed. At high overpotentials, crossover to a potential-independent morphology occurs, consisting of a compact PbBrF deposit with a saturation thickness of 25 nm, which forms within a few minutes. This potential behavior can be rationalized by the increasing supersaturation near the interface, caused by the potential-dependent Pb 2+ deamalgamation, which changes from a slow reaction-controlled process to a fast transport-controlled process in this range of overpotentials. In addition, growth on the liquid substrate is found to involve complex micromechanical effects, such as crystal reorientation and film breakup during dissolution.