Open AccessBeyond the Green Fluorescent Protein: Biomolecular Reporters for Anaerobic and Deep-Tissue Imaging
Author(s) -
Harun F Ozbakir,
Nolan T. Anderson,
Kang-Ching Fan,
Arnab Mukherjee
Publication year - 2019
Publication title -
bioconjugate chemistry
Language(s) - English
Resource type - Journals
SCImago Journal Rank - 1.279
H-Index - 172
eISSN - 1520-4812
pISSN - 1043-1802
DOI - 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.9b00688
Subject(s) - green fluorescent protein , chemistry , computational biology , fluorescence , function (biology) , fluorescent protein , reporter gene , nanotechnology , cornerstone , protein engineering , biochemical engineering , microbiology and biotechnology , gene , biochemistry , biology , gene expression , physics , materials science , quantum mechanics , art , engineering , visual arts , enzyme
Fluorescence imaging represents cornerstone technology for studying biological function at the cellular and molecular levels. The technology's centerpiece is a prolific collection of genetic reporters based on the green fluorescent protein (GFP) and related analogs. More than two decades of protein engineering have endowed the GFP repertoire with an incredible assortment of fluorescent proteins, allowing scientists immense latitude in choosing reporters tailored to various cellular and environmental contexts. Nevertheless, GFP and derivative reporters have specific limitations that hinder their unrestricted use for molecular imaging. These challenges have inspired the development of new reporter proteins and imaging mechanisms. Here, we review how these developments are expanding the frontiers of reporter gene techniques to enable nondestructive studies of cell function in anaerobic environments and deep inside intact animals-two important biological contexts that are fundamentally incompatible with the use of GFP-based reporters.