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The challenge of complex drug use: Associated use of codeine‐containing medicines and new psychoactive substances in a European cross‐sectional online population
Author(s) -
Kimergård Andreas,
Foley Michelle,
Davey Zoe,
Wadsworth Elle,
Drummond Colin,
Deluca Paolo
Publication year - 2017
Publication title -
human psychopharmacology: clinical and experimental
Language(s) - English
Resource type - Journals
SCImago Journal Rank - 0.461
H-Index - 78
eISSN - 1099-1077
pISSN - 0885-6222
DOI - 10.1002/hup.2611
Subject(s) - codeine , euphoriant , drug , medicine , recreational drug , recreational use , population , pharmacology , environmental health , psychiatry , recreation , morphine , political science , law
Objective Misuse of codeine‐containing medicines in combination with new psychoactive substances (NPS) is inadequately described. This study characterises codeine consumption amongst NPS users and non‐NPS users to provide warning of health issues. Methods Online survey conducted between July 2015 and March 2016. Results Out of 340 respondents, residing in a country in Europe and using codeine recently, 63.8% were female. Mean age: 34.9 years ( SD = 12.4). Substance use included NPS (18.5%) and illicit controlled drugs (55.9%). Factors relating to codeine use found to significantly predict NPS use were consuming codeine extracted from combination tablets (OR = 16.79, 95% CI [8.67, 32.51]), obtaining codeine from friends, family, and acquaintances (OR = 3.98, 95% CI [1.82, 8.7]), use of illicit controlled drugs (OR = 34.99, 95% CI [8.39, 145.94]) and use of codeine to experience euphoria (OR = 6.41, 95% CI [3.42, 12.04]). Conclusions Amongst NPS users, codeine is less likely to be used daily but more likely to be used for recreational purposes. Smaller populations engaging in high‐risk use exist who take multiple drugs in high doses. Combinations of misused codeine and NPS highlight the need for policy to respond to a more complex drug situation.