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Why all stimulant drugs are damaging to recreational users: an empirical overview and psychobiological explanation
Author(s) -
Parrott Andrew C.
Publication year - 2015
Publication title -
human psychopharmacology: clinical and experimental
Language(s) - English
Resource type - Journals
SCImago Journal Rank - 0.461
H-Index - 78
eISSN - 1099-1077
pISSN - 0885-6222
DOI - 10.1002/hup.2468
Subject(s) - stimulant , mdma , ecstasy , nicotine , psychology , euphoriant , addiction , hallucinogen , amphetamine , mood , alertness , neurocognitive , recreational drug , methamphetamine , recreational drug use , medicine , psychiatry , drug , neuroscience , dopamine , cognition
Aims Stimulant drugs such as nicotine and Ecstasy/3, 4‐methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) are taken for positive reasons, yet their regular use leads to deficits rather than gains. This article outlines the psychobiological rationale for this paradox. Methods The empirical literature on nicotine, cocaine, amphetamine, Ecstasy/MDMA, and mephedrone are reviewed. A theoretical explanation for why they are problematic to humans is then described. Results The acute effects of central nervous system (CNS) stimulants are typically positive, with greater alertness and emotional intensity. However, in the post‐drug recovery period, the opposite feelings develop, with lethargy and low moods. All recreational stimulants cause mood fluctuation, although it is most pronounced in drugs with rapid onset and comedown (e.g. nicotine and cocaine), explaining why they are the most addictive. Parallel fluctuations occur across many psychological and neurocognitive functions, with users suffering various off‐drug deficits. CNS stimulants also affect the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, impairing sleep, disrupting homeostasis, and exacerbating psychiatric distress. Neuroimaging studies reveal altered brain activity patterns in regular users. These problems are related to lifetime usage but commence in novice users. Conclusions Repetitive CNS stimulation is potentially damaging to the organism, both acutely and chronically. The review describes the various psychobiological systems through which recreational stimulant drugs impair human well‐being. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.