Open AccessWhen can embryos learn? A test of the timing of learning in embryonic amphibians
Author(s) -
Sehr Evie K.,
Beasley Lindsay N.,
Wilson Kurtis W.,
Gall Brian G.
Publication year - 2016
Publication title -
ecology and evolution
Language(s) - English
Resource type - Journals
SCImago Journal Rank - 1.17
H-Index - 63
ISSN - 2045-7758
DOI - 10.1002/ece3.2018
Subject(s) - amphibian , salamander , biology , predator , predation , zoology , larva , significant difference , ecology , survivorship curve , statistics , mathematics , genetics , cancer
Learning is crucial to the survival of organisms across their life span, including during embryonic development. We set out to determine when learning becomes possible in amphibian development by exposing spotted salamander ( A mbystoma maculatum ) embryos to chemical stimuli from a predator ( A mbystoma opacum ), nonpredator ( L ithobates clamitans ), or control at developmental stages 16–21 or 36–38 (Harrison [Harrison, R. G., 1969]). Once exposures were completed and embryos hatched, we recorded the number of movements and time spent moving of individuals in both groups and all treatments. There was no significant difference in number of movements or time spent moving among any of the treatments. The groups that were exposed to predator stimuli and a blank control at stages 36–38 were also tested to determine whether there was a difference in refuge preference or difference in survivorship when exposed to a predator (marbled salamander). There was no difference in survival or refuge preference between individuals; however, all individuals preferred vegetated over open areas regardless of treatment type. We discuss hypotheses for the absence of embryonic learning in this species and suggest it may be the result of the intensity of the predator–prey interaction between the predator, large marbled salamander larvae, and the prey, spotted salamander larvae.