Electrolyte disturbances in chronic heart failure: Metabolic and clinical aspects

The pathophysiology of congestive heart failure (CHF) includes conditions (e.g., activation of the renin‐angiotensin‐aldosterone system) which, when combined with CHF therapies, make patients afflicted with this syndrome quite susceptible to electrolyte disturbances. The most commonly encountered are hyponatremia, hypokalemia, and hypomagnesemia. These derangements are of vast clinical importance; their development not only represents an immediate threat to the CHF patient (e.g., dysrhythmias secondary to hypokalemia), but are also indicative of underlying pathophysiologic events, an unfavorable clinical course, and occasionally an adverse therapeutic response. The optimal care of the CHF patient includes the recognition and management of these electrolyte disturbances.