Selection on the gametophyte: Modeling alternation of generations in plants

Premise The degree of gametophyte dependence on the sporophyte life stage is a major feature that differentiates the life cycles of land plants, yet the evolutionary consequences of this difference remain poorly understood. Most evolutionary models assume organisms are either haploid or diploid for their entire lifespan, which is not appropriate for simulating plant life cycles. Here, we introduce shadie ( S imulating Ha ploid– Di ploid E volution), a new, simple Python program for implementing simulations with biphasic life cycles and analyzing their results, using SLiM 3 as a simulation back end. Methods We implemented evolutionary simulations under three realistic plant life cycle models supported in shadie , using either standardized or biologically realistic parameter settings to test how variation in plant life cycles and sexual systems affects patterns of genome diversity. Results The dynamics of single beneficial mutation fixation did not vary dramatically between different models, but the patterns of spatial variation did differ, demonstrating that different life histories and model parameters affect both genetic diversity and linkage disequilibrium. The rate of linkage disequilibrium decay away from selected sites varied depending on model parameters such as cloning and selfing rates, through their impact on effective population sizes. Discussion Evolutionary simulations are an exciting, underutilized approach in evolutionary research and education. shadie can aid plant researchers in developing null hypotheses, examining theory, and designing empirical studies, in order to investigate the role of the gametophyte life stage, and the effects of variation in plant life cycles, on plant genome evolution.