Carcinogenicity of occupational nickel exposures: An evaluation of the epidemiological evidence

The health effects documented in recent epidemiological studies of nickel‐exposed workers relate to past exposures, mostly of unknown magnitude and unknown nickel speciation. Major studies have been carried out at nickel smelters and refineries. Although each study suffers from some deficiencies, as is common in such retrospective studies, the findings in concert strongly indicate that nickel emitted from the calcining and sintering operations is a potent carcinogen resulting in nasal and pulmonary cancers. Some risk appears to be present in other refinery operations, such as Orford furnace, copper and nickel sulfate, and crushing departments, and one study has suggested a risk associated with soluble nickel compounds in the electrolysis department, although this finding has not been confirmed. Only one study demonstrated an exposure‐response relationship, which, however, was not statistically significant. Other studies showed a relationship between increased exposure time and augmented cancer risk. In nickel‐using industries, no excess cancer related to nickel exposures has been demonstrated beyond doubt; concurrent exposures to other potential carcinogens constitute a confounding variable that makes interpretation difficult. However, the studies have not excluded that a cancer hazard may be present outside the nickel‐producing facilities. Further, case‐referent studies of respiratory cancers suggest that a nickel‐related etiology may well exist in the nickel‐using industries. As the exact identity of the carcinogenic form or forms of nickel remains unknown, exposure to all nickel compounds should be kept as low as reasonably achievable.