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Some proteins are expressed as a result of a ribosome frameshifting event that is facilitated by a slippery site and downstream secondary structure elements in the  mRNA . This review summarizes recent progress in understanding mechanisms of –1 frameshifting in several viral genes, including  IBV   1a/1b ,  HIV ‐1  gag‐pol , and  SFV   6K , and in  Escherichia coli dnaX . The exact frameshifting route depends on the availability of aminoacyl‐ tRNA s: the ribosome normally slips into the –1‐frame during  tRNA  translocation, but can also frameshift during decoding at condition when aminoacyl‐ tRNA  is in limited supply. Different frameshifting routes and additional slippery sites allow viruses to maintain a constant production of their key proteins. The emerging idea that  tRNA  pools are important for frameshifting provides new direction for developing antiviral therapies.

Mechanisms and biomedical implications of –1 programmed ribosome frameshifting on viral and bacterial mRNAs