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Background  Spatial genetic structure (SGS) analysis is a powerful approach to quantifying gene flow between trees, thus clarifying the functional connectivity of trees at population and landscape scales. The findings of SGS analysis may be useful for conservation and management of natural populations and plantations.  Pinus cembroides  is a widely distributed tree species, covering an area of about 2.5 million hectares in Mexico. The aim of this study was to examine five natural seed stands of  P. cembroides  in the Sierra Madre Occidental to determine the SGS at population (within the seed stand) and landscape (among seed stands) levels in order to establish guidelines for the conservation and management of the species. We hypothesized that  P. cembroides , in which the seeds are dispersed by birds and mammals, creates weaker SGS than species with wind-dispersed seeds.    Methods  DNA fingerprinting was performed using the amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) technique. In order to estimate the SGS at population and landscape levels, we measured the geographical (spatial) distance as the Euclidean distance. We also estimated the genetic distances between individuals using the pairwise kinship coefficient.    Results  The results showed non-significant autocorrelation in four out of five seed stands studied (i.e., a mainly random distribution in the space of the genetic variants of  P. cembroides  at population level).    Discussion  SGS was detected at the landscape scale, supporting the theory of isolation by distance as a consequence of restricted pollen and seed dispersal. However, the SGS may also have been generated by our sampling strategy. We recommended establishing a close network of seed stands of  P. cembroides  to prevent greater loss of local genetic variants and alteration of SGS. We recommend seed stands of  P. cembroides  of a minimum width of 225 m.

Spatial genetic structure inPinus cembroidesZucc. at population and landscape levels in central and northern Mexico