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Although polyploidy is considered a ubiquitous process in plants, the establishment of new polyploid species may be hindered by ecological competition with parental diploid taxa. In such cases, the adaptive processes that result in the ecological divergence of diploids and polyploids can lead to their co-existence. In contrast, non-adaptive processes can lead to the co-existence of diploids and polyploids or to differentiated distributions, particularly when the minority cytotype disadvantage effect comes into play. Although large-scale studies of cytotype distributions have been widely conducted, the segregation of sympatric cytotypes on fine scales has been poorly studied. We analysed the spatial distribution and ecological requirements of the tetraploid  Centaurea seridis  and the diploid  Centaurea aspera  in east Spain on a large scale, and also microspatially in contact zones where both species hybridise and give rise to sterile triploid hybrids. On the fine scale, the position of each  Centaurea  individual was recorded along with soil parameters, accompanying species cover and plant richness. On the east Spanish coast, a slight latitudinal gradient was found. Tetraploid  C. seridis  individuals were located northerly and diploid  C. aspera  individuals southerly. Tetraploids were found only in the habitats with strong anthropogenic disturbance. In disturbed locations with well-developed semi-fixed or fixed dunes, diploids and tetraploids could co-exist and hybridise. However, on a fine scale, although taxa were spatially segregated in contact zones, they were not ecologically differentiated. This finding suggests the existence of non-adaptive processes that have led to their co-existence. Triploid hybrids were closer to diploid allogamous mothers ( C. aspera ) than to tetraploid autogamous fathers ( C. seridis ). This may result in a better ability to compete for space in the tetraploid minor cytotype, which might facilitate its long-term persistence.

peerj

Distribution and ecological segregation on regional and microgeographic scales of the diploid<i>Centaurea aspera</i>L., the tetraploid<i>C. seridis</i>L., and their triploid hybrids (Compositae)

Distribution and ecological segregation on regional and microgeographic scales of the diploidCentaurea asperaL., the tetraploidC. seridisL., and their triploid hybrids (Compositae)