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Background  The systematics of long-nosed armadillos (genus  Dasypus ) has been mainly based on a handful of external morphological characters and classical measurements. Here, we studied the pattern of morphological variation in the skull of long-nosed armadillos species, with a focus on the systematics of the widely distributed nine-banded armadillo ( Dasypus novemcinctus ).    Methods  We present the first exhaustive 3D comparison of the skull morphology within the genus  Dasypus , based on micro-computed tomography. We used geometric morphometric approaches to explore the patterns of the intra- and interspecific morphological variation of the skull with regard to several factors such as taxonomy, geography, allometry, and sexual dimorphism.    Results  We show that the shape and size of the skull vary greatly among  Dasypus  species, with  Dasypus pilosus  representing a clear outlier compared to other long-nosed armadillos. The study of the cranial intraspecific variation in  Dasypus novemcinctus  evidences clear links to the geographic distribution and argues in favor of a revision of past taxonomic delimitations. Our detailed morphometric comparisons detected previously overlooked morphotypes of nine-banded armadillos, especially a very distinctive unit restricted to the Guiana Shield.    Discussion  As our results are congruent with recent molecular data and analyses of the structure of paranasal sinuses, we propose that  Dasypus novemcinctus  should be regarded either as a polytypic species (with three to four subspecies) or as a complex of several distinct species.

Beyond the carapace: skull shape variation and morphological systematics of long-nosed armadillos (genusDasypus)