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Background  Bite marks attributed to adult  Tyrannosaurus rex  have been subject to numerous studies. However, few bite marks attributed to  T. rex  have been traced to juveniles, leaving considerable gaps in understanding ontogenetic changes in bite mechanics and force, and the paleoecological role of juvenile tyrannosaurs in the late Cretaceous.    Methods  Here we present bite force estimates for a juvenile  Tyrannosaurus rex  based on mechanical tests designed to replicate bite marks previously attributed to a  T. rex  of approximately 13 years old. A maxillary tooth of the juvenile  Tyrannosaurus  specimen BMR P2002.4.1 was digitized, replicated in dental grade cobalt chromium alloy, and mounted to an electromechanical testing system. The tooth was then pressed into bovine long bones in various locations with differing cortical bone thicknesses at varying speeds for a total of 17 trials. Forces required to replicate punctures were recorded and puncture dimensions were measured.    Results  Our experimentally derived linear models suggest bite forces up to 5,641.19 N from cortical bone thickness estimated from puncture marks on an  Edmontosaurus  and a juvenile  Tyrannosaurus . These findings are slightly higher than previously estimated bite forces for a juvenile  Tyrannosaurus rex  of approximately the same size as BMR P2002.4.1 but fall within the expected range when compared to estimates of adult  T. rex .    Discussion  The results of this study offer further insight into the role of juvenile tyrannosaurs in late Cretaceous ecosystems. Furthermore, we discuss the implications for feeding mechanisms, feeding behaviors, and ontogenetic niche partitioning.

Bite force estimates in juvenileTyrannosaurus rexbased on simulated puncture marks