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Sustainable management of plant-herbivore systems requires an understanding of their long-term dynamics through modeling approaches. A preliminary simulation model was developed using STELLA to predict the impacts of elephants and fire on the structure of semi-arid miombo woodlands of northwestern Zimbabwe. Elephants alone at a density of 0.27 km -2 will convert the woodland into coppice in 120 years due to resulting massive declines of large trees. The same result is achieved in only 10 years if elephant density is at 2 km -2 . The pattern remains similar with simultaneous application of fire once every 4.7 years with elephants at 0.27 km -2 . When elephants are culled at 30% whenever their densities reach 1 km -2 , the woodland does not degenerate into coppice despite fire occurrence once every 4.7 years. Therefore, elephants alone can degrade and maintain semi-arid miombo woodland into coppice, largely due to their damaging impacts on mature canopy trees and fire acts to speed up the process by suppression of an already low recruitment. Fire alone has a lesser influence on woodland structure than elephants because of low fuel loads due to heavy grazing and low grass production as a result of low rainfall and inherently poor soils in the area. A maximum elephant density of 0.1 km -2 is recom-mended to achieve equilibrium in the area.

journal of ecology and the natural environment

A preliminary simulation model of individual and synergistic impacts of elephants and fire on the structure of semi-arid miombo woodlands in northwestern Zimbabwe