Growers follow the label: An analysis of bee-toxic pesticide use in almond orchards during bloom

Managed honey bees add an estimated $17 billion in direct and indirect pollination services to nearly 70% of all major food crops in the United States (Calderone 2012). Yet despite their critical economic and ecological role, the current state of honey bees is precarious. In 2018, commercial beekeepers (those managing 501 or more colonies) lost over 37.5% of their colonies during winter, while stating that losses of less than 22% were economically viable (Bruckner et al. 2019). Research indicates that honey bee vulnerability is due to a nexus of stressors: parasites such as Varroa destructor mites and the gut fungus Nosema ceranea, pathogens and disease, a lack of healthy and diverse pollen resources, and exposure to bee-toxic pesticides (Goulson et al. 2015). In 2016, commercial beekeepers in the United States attributed Abstract