Practical Politics and Voice and Equality

both to reconstruction for post-hoc plausibility and to inflation for social desirability, but they point out that the response patterns vary by forms of participation in ways which make it unlikely that social desirability accounts for the entire phenomenon. They also forgo describing civic motivations as "expressive," probably having picked up from the philosophical literature the point that motivations deriving from duty are conceptually distinct from, even opposed to, motivations deriving from desire. In the adversarial model of democracy, the relevant normative rule is that conflicting interests should be represented in proportion to the numbers of interestbearers in the population. VSB advance both normative theory and empirical knowledge in this tradition by considering in depth for the first time the role of citizen as representative, and by demonstrating to devastating effect that both descriptively and substantively the existing participatory system in the United States results in major representational distortions.