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In conclusion, when it can be demonstrated that the need is great, an action produces the desired benefits, the risks are not too high, the intervention is economically feasible, and there are no viable, more scientifically certain alternatives, then policy-makers should proceed even in the face of less than complete evidence. It should be remembered that scientific uncertainty may be exploited by special interest groups as a shield for opposition to the measure. Public policy decisions may be said to be made or not made on the basis of scientific uncertainty, but they may in actuality be driven by political or economic considerations. With respect to balancing individual rights and the public interest, it is clear that, in many instances, these two interests will be congruent. If they conflict, however, then weight should be given to the public interest in line with the principle that public health is social justice.

Public health policy-making in the presence of incomplete evidence.