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This research explored stereotypes associated with labels for White people: whites, white trash, and redneck. It also examined how these labels affect attitudes toward white subgroups. Participants described whites as dominant, elite, middleclass, and privileged. Rednecks and white trash were described with stereotypically negative characteristics, such as poor and uneducated. White trash were more likely to be characterized as dirty than rednecks, whereas rednecks were more likely to be characterized as prejudiced and country/Southern than white trash. Furthermore, I found that whites were perceived most positively, followed by rednecks, and white trash were perceived most negatively. Participants exposed to the labels white trash and redneck were less likely to endorse mainstream values than participants exposed to the label whites. These findings demonstrate that labels, such as white trash and redneck, negatively influence perceptions of low-status whites. Specifically, the labels white trash and redneck may be used to elicit classist and prejudiced views of low-status whites. Redneck or White Trash? | 3 Redneck or White Trash? The Influence of Labeling on Perceptions of White Subgroups “Drag a $100 bill through a trailer park and there's no telling what you'll find.” -James Carville In 1991, Arkansas state employee Paula Jones accused Bill Clinton of sexual harassment (“The Clinton,” 2015). James Carville, a prominent figure of the Democratic party, responded with the above comment that implied Jones lived in a trailer park and that her accusation was an attempt to make money (“The Clinton,” 2015). Living in a trailer home and being money-hungry are both stereotypes of white trash (Adkins, 2011; Hays, 2013), so it was clear that Carville was portraying Jones as white trash to tarnish her character in an effort to dismiss her claims against Clinton. Whereas Jones’s case was ultimately dismissed, Bill Clinton’s affair with Monica Lewinsky was readily accepted (Froomkin, 1998). Lewinsky, who was well educated and a White House intern (Leen, 1998), ultimately received considerable celebrity status and was invited to give a TED Talk (Lewinsky, 2015). Thus, Carville’s statement and the subsequent media attack on Jones, as opposed to Lewinsky, demonstrate mainstream prejudice against low-status white individuals and the potential impact of labels, such as white trash, on perceptions of individuals’ character. In the current research, I explore the characteristics, attitudes, and perceptions of three labels used to describe white individuals: whites, white trash, and redneck. I Redneck or White Trash? | 4 examine whether the characteristics used to describe these three labels differ. I assess perceptions of white groups labeled using these terms, and I explore the labels’ effect on participants’ endorsement of mainstream ideals. High Status Whites’ Social and Physical Distancing from Low Status Whites Before Carville attempted to slander Jones’s name, Clinton argued that he had never met Jones (Thompson, 2015). Clinton and Carville’s statements were efforts to both socially and physically distance Clinton from Jones. These tactics are not rare, as mainstream white individuals socially and physically distance themselves from poor whites (Kunstman, Plant, and Deska, 2016). Kunstman, Plant, and Deska (2016) found that white participants reported low-socioeconomic (SES) whites as greater social threats (i.e. agreed more strongly that “poor white people in America threaten the general status of Americans.”) than low-SES blacks. Participants also reported greater discomfort during social interactions with low-SES whites than other social groups. Furthermore, they opted to sit further away from low SES-whites than high-SES whites or low-SES blacks. This social and physical distancing is a reflection of mainstream white individuals’ desire to differentiate themselves from low-status white individuals. Just as Carville used labeling to discredit Jones and distance her from Clinton, the use of labels to describe low-status white individuals may embody this stigmatization and social/physical distancing of low-status white individuals by mainstream white individuals. The Influence of Labeling Language influences individual’s perceptions and attitudes toward different behaviors and groups. For instance, labels can influence people’s willingness to Redneck or White Trash? | 5 support government spending and attitudes toward social groups (Hall, Phillips, and Townsend, 2014; Smith, 1987). Government spending. Smith (1987) found that people are more likely to support greater government spending on “assistance for the poor” and the “unemployed” than they are to support “welfare.” Similarly, there is more support for government spending on “dealing with drug addiction” than on “drug rehabilitation” (Rasinski, 1989). These findings suggest that while some statements are essentially synonymous, subtle changes in wording can influence individuals’ perceptions. These changes may also influence perceptions of members of particular social groups, such as low-status white individuals. Social groups. Applying labels to individuals of various backgrounds influences perceptions of those individuals (Hall et al., 2014). For instance, white people perceive Blacks and African Americans differently, and popular media argues that the term illegal immigrant is more dehumanizing than undocumented immigrant (Hall et al.; Sullivan, 2012; Vargas, 2012). Terms used to describe low-income individuals, such as white trash and redneck, may similarly influence perceptions of those individuals, as I elaborate below. Hall et al. (2014) found that individuals labeled Black were perceived more negatively than individuals labeled African American. White participants used more negative characteristics to describe Blacks than African Americans. Furthermore, white participants were given a profile of a male labeled either Black or African American and reported what they expected the male’s salary or job to be. Participants associated the Black male with a lower salary, occupational position, and education Redneck or White Trash? | 6 attainment level than the African American male. These findings suggest that different labels used to characterize a social group elicit different perceptions, and this may hold true for terms used to identify members of other social groups, such as immigrants and low-status white individuals. The findings of Hall et al. (2014) similarly inform the media discourse around terms used to describe immigrants. For example, in 2012, Jose Antonio Vargas, journalist and founder of Define American, called for The New York Times to move away from using the term, illegal immigrant (Sullivan, 2012). He argued that the term was “disparaging and inaccurate,” because it defines the immigrant based on his or her legal status (Sullivan, 2012; Vargas, 2012). Furthermore, the results of a survey conducted by ABC/Univision demonstrated that immigrants perceived the term to be “offensive and dehumanizing” (Heston, 2012). As a result, The Associated Press moved away form using the term illegal immigrant and toward terms like undocumented immigrant (Costantini, 2013), and The New York Times encouraged writers to find alternative labels when discussing immigrants (Colford, 2013; Haughty, 2013; Plants, 2013). This debate around the influence of the term illegal on immigrants suggests that there may be a similar influence of the terms used to describe low-status white individuals, particularly white trash, given that trash may be dehumanizing. Film director John Waters once claimed that white trash is “the last racist thing you can say and get away with” (Wray, 2013: 251). Waters was suggesting that white trash was a racialized term that elicits prejudice toward a particular white subgroup. However, Waters claimed that white trash was the last racist term, Redneck or White Trash? | 7 suggesting that other terms used to describe low-status white groups, such as redneck, are not perceived as negatively as white trash. While redneck and white trash are often used interchangeably, Waters suggests that there may be different stereotypes associated with the two terms, and Davies (2010) and Hartigan’s (2005) findings suggest that he may be correct in his assessment of white trash as especially prejudiced. Thus, it is important to explore how these labels may influence perceptions of white subgroups, particularly low-status white groups. As reviewed, labels can negatively influence perceptions of individuals (Hall et al., 2014; Phelan, 1997). However, research has yet to explore how labels, such as white, white trash, and redneck, may similarly influence perceptions of white subgroups. These labels may differentially shape perceptions of white individuals: particularly low-status white individuals. Characterizing Whites, Redneck, and White Trash In order to understand why attitudes may differ toward individuals who are labeled white, redneck, or white trash, it is important to understand the differences in characteristics associated with each label. Whiteness is often associated with middleclass status (Morris, 2005), as white individuals enjoy greater access to wealth and power than other racial groups (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). Thus, the general term used to refer to white individuals, whites, is associated with middle-class status (Morris, 2005). However, not all white individuals are middle-class. Low-SES white individuals that deviate from mainstream, middle-class white individuals are often referred to as redneck or white trash, which are stigmatized terms used to distinguish mainstream white individuals from poor white individuals (Wray, 2006). Redneck or White Trash? | 8 The label redneck was originally used to describe a farmer whose neck was red from sunburn after working in the field all day (Cassidy & Hall, 1985). As a result, the origin of this label ste