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Wind-borne pollinating wasps (Agaonidae) can transport fig ( Ficus  sp., Moraceae) pollen over enormous distances (> 100 km). Because of their extensive breeding areas, Neotropical figs are expected to exhibit weak patterns of genetic structure at local and regional scales. We evaluated genetic structure at the regional to continental scale (Panama, Costa Rica, and Peru) for the free-standing fig species  Ficus insipida . Genetic differentiation was detected only at distances > 300 km (Jost´s  D est   = 0.68 ± 0.07 &  F ST   = 0.30 ± 0.03 between Mesoamerican and Amazonian sites) and evidence for phylogeographic structure ( R   ST >>permuted  R   ST ) was only significant in comparisons between Central and South America. Further, we assessed local scale spatial genetic structure (SGS, d ≤ 8 km) in Panama and developed an agent-based model parameterized with data from  F .  insipida  to estimate minimum pollination distances, which determine the contribution of pollen dispersal on SGS. The local scale data for  F .  insipida  was compared to SGS data collected for an additional free-standing fig,  F .  yoponensis  (subgenus  Pharmacosycea ), and two species of strangler figs,  F .  citrifolia  and  F .  obtusifolia  (subgenus  Urostigma ) sampled in Panama. All four species displayed significant SGS (mean  Sp  = 0.014 ± 0.012). Model simulations indicated that most pollination events likely occur at distances > > 1 km, largely ruling out spatially limited pollen dispersal as the determinant of SGS in  F .  insipida  and, by extension, the other fig species. Our results are consistent with the view that  Ficus  develops fine-scale SGS primarily as a result of localized seed dispersal and/or clumped seedling establishment despite extensive long-distance pollen dispersal. We discuss several ecological and life history factors that could have species- or subgenus-specific impacts on the genetic structure of Neotropical figs.

Spatial Scales of Genetic Structure in Free-Standing and Strangler Figs (Ficus, Moraceae) Inhabiting Neotropical Forests