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Increasing evidence suggests that gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), corazonin, adipokinetic hormone (AKH), and red pigment-concentrating hormone all share common ancestry to form a GnRH superfamily. Despite the wide presence of these peptides in protostomes, their biological effects remain poorly characterized in many taxa. This study had three goals. First, we cloned the full-length sequence of a novel AKH, termed  Aplysia -AKH, and examined its distribution in an opisthobranch mollusk,  Aplysia californica . Second, we investigated  in vivo  biological effects of  Aplysia -AKH. Lastly, we compared the effects of  Aplysia -AKH to a related  A. californica  peptide,  Aplysia -GnRH. Results suggest that  Aplysia -AKH mRNA and peptide are localized exclusively in central tissues, with abdominal, cerebral, and pleural ganglia being the primary sites of  Aplysia -AKH production. However,  Aplysia -AKH-positive fibers were found in all central ganglia, suggesting diverse neuromodulatory roles. Injections of  A. californica  with  Aplysia -AKH significantly inhibited feeding, reduced body mass, increased excretion of feces, and reduced gonadal mass and oocyte diameter. The  in vivo  effects of  Aplysia -AKH differed substantially from  Aplysia -GnRH. Overall, the distribution and biological effects of  Aplysia -AKH suggest it has diverged functionally from  Aplysia -GnRH over the course of evolution. Further, that both  Aplysia -AKH and  Aplysia -GnRH failed to activate reproduction suggest the critical role of GnRH as a reproductive activator may be a phenomenon unique to vertebrates.

Localization and Functional Characterization of a Novel Adipokinetic Hormone in the Mollusk, Aplysia californica