Mechanisms of action of okadaic acid class tumor promoters on mouse skin.

Okadaic acid, dinophysistoxin-1 (35-methylokadaic acid), and calyculin A are the okadaic acid class of non-12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-type tumor promoters, which do not bind to the phorbol ester receptors in cell membranes or activate protein kinase C in vitro. They have potent tumor-promoting activities on mouse skin, as strong as TPA-type tumor promoters, such as TPA, teleocidin, and aplysiatoxin. DNA samples isolated from tumors induced by dimethylbenz[alpha]anthracene and each of the okadaic acid class tumor promoters had the same mutation at the second nucleotide of codon 61 (CAA to CTA) in the c-H-ras gene. Okadaic acid receptors, protein phosphatases 1 and 2A, are present in the particulate as well as cytosolic fractions of various mouse tissues. The apparent "activation" of protein kinases by the okadaic acid class tumor promoters, after their incubation with 32P-ATP, protein kinases, and protein phosphatases, was observed. This activation was caused by inhibition of protein phosphatases 1 and 2A by the okadaic acid class tumor promoters. Treatment of primary human fibroblasts and human keratinocytes with the okadaic acid class tumor promoters induced the hyperphosphorylation of a 60-kDa protein in nuclear and cytosolic fractions, due to the inhibition of protein phosphatases. The 60-kDa protein is a proteolytic fragment of nucleolin, a major nonhistone protein and is designated as "N-60." The mechanisms of action of the okadaic acid class tumor promoters are discussed with emphasis on the inhibition of protein phosphatase activity.