Noise and stress: a comprehensive approach.

The fundamental purposes of hearing are to alert and to warn. As a result sound directly evokes emotions and actions. The processing of sound by the brain is outlined to provide a biological and psychological basis for understanding the way in which sound can become a human stressor. The auditory orienting response, startle reflex and defensive response translate sound stimuli into action and sometimes into stress induced bodily changes through "fight or flight" neural mechanisms. The literature on the health and mental health effects of noise then is reviewed in the context of an integrated model that offers a holistic approach to noise research and public policy formulation. The thesis of this paper is that research upon, and efforts to prevent or minimize the harmful effects of noise have suffered from the lack of a full appreciation of the ways in which humans process and react to sound.