Sleep Apnea and Cardiovascular Disease

Sleep apnea occurs in ≈5% to 10% of the general population, regardless of race and ethnicity.1 By contrast, in patients with cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), its prevalence, depending on the specific disorder surveyed, can range between 47% and 83%.2–4 One form, central sleep apnea (CSA), is rare in the general population, but is detected often in conditions characterized by sodium and water retention, such as heart failure (HF).2 Such epidemiological observations raise several important and as yet unresolved questions: What accounts for this remarkable concentration of sleep apnea among patients with CVD and its association with fluid retaining states? Does obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) predispose at-risk individuals to develop, over time, hypertension, coronary artery disease, stroke, or HF? Conversely, could mechanisms engaged by CVD, such as activation of the sympathetic nervous and renin-angiotensin-aldosterone systems, with consequences including renal sodium retention, contribute over time to the development or exacerbation of sleep apnea? From the clinical perspective, is sleep apnea, when present in patients with CVD an epiphenomenon, perhaps related to ageing, or a causal contributor to worse prognosis? And if so, are there now sufficient data to recommend randomized controlled trials to determine whether specific treatment of sleep apnea can reduce mortality or cardiovascular event rates? Our objectives, in this review, are to provide novel insight into each of these specific questions by integrating into our contemporary understanding of relationships between sleep apnea and CVD5 newer epidemiological, observational, mechanistic, and trial data; to introduce a hypothetical model of bidirectional causality; and to consider directions for future research.In healthy subjects, during non–rapid eye movement sleep (which constitutes ≈85% of total sleep time), efferent sympathetic nerve activity (SNA) diminishes and vagal tone increases, resulting in reductions in metabolic rate, blood pressure (BP), and heart rate (HR).6 …