A Review of the Receptor-Binding Properties ofp-Synephrine as Related to Its Pharmacological Effects

Bitter orange ( Citrus aurantium ) extract and its primary protoalkaloid p -synephrine are used widely in weight loss/weight management and sports performance products. Because of structural similarities, the pharmacological effects of p -synephrine are widely assumed to be similar to those of ephedrine, m -synephrine (phenylephrine), and endogenous amine neurotransmitters as norepinephrine and epinephrine. However, small structural changes result in the receptor binding characteristics of these amines that are markedly different, providing a plausible explanation for the paucity of adverse effects associated with the wide-spread consumption of p -synephrine in the form of dietary supplements as well as in various Citrus foods and juices. This paper summarizes the adrenoreceptor binding characteristics of p -synephrine relative to m -synephrine, norepinephrine, and other amines as related to the observed pharmacological effects.