Extinguishing a Permian World

At the end of the Permian, ca. 252 Ma ago, marine and terrestrial fauna were facing the most extensive mass extinction in Earth history (Raup and Sepkoski, 1982). 80%–95% of all species on Earth, on land and in the oceans, became extinct (Benton et al., 2004) within an estimated time interval of less than 200 k.y. to 700 k.y. (Huang et al., 2011; Shen et al., 2011). Among the prominent Paleozoic animal groups that vanished are fusulinid foraminifera, rugose and tabulate corals, and the arthropod class Trilobita. The numerous hypotheses about the causes of the mass extinction include various environmental changes, mostly related to the emplacement of the Siberian Traps large igneous province. The compilation of radiometric U/Pb ages for the mass extinction and the Siberian Traps demonstrate a temporal overlap of both events (Svensen et al., 2009). A prominent hypothesis for the mass extinction is an accentuated global climate change scenario induced by volcanic CO 2 degassing (e.g., Svensen et al., 2009) that triggered biotic responses in the sea and on land. But what do we know about the climate at this time in Earth history? The two main features of climate recorded in the geological archives are temperature and humidity i.e., the moisture that is available for plant growth, and to a certain extent rainfall patterns. Climate simulations model the general circulation patterns during Permian–Triassic times. The paleogeography was characterized by the supercontinent Pangea extending nearly from pole to pole, with large land masses in the mid-latitudes of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, and with the Tethys Ocean in the tropics (e.g., Smith et al., 1994). Climate models and sensitivity experiments demonstrated that this paleogeography provided the preconditions for a monsoonal circulation with strong seasonality of temperatures and rainfall on the Tethyan coasts, and distinct northern and southern intertropical convergence zones (Fig. 1) (e.g., Kutzbach and Ziegler, 1993; Parrish, 1993). Moist conditions prevailed in middle and high latitudes and along the