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Redox homeostasis is a fundamental requirement for the maintenance of metabolism, energy generation, and growth in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The redox cofactors NADH and NADPH are among the most highly connected metabolites in metabolic networks. Changes in their concentrations may induce widespread changes in metabolism. Redox imbalances were achieved with a dedicated biological tool overexpressing native NADH-dependent or engineered NADPH-dependent 2,3-butanediol dehydrogenase, in the presence of acetoin. We report that targeted perturbation of the balance of cofactors (NAD(+)/NADH or, to a lesser extent, NADP(+)/NADPH) significantly affected the production of volatile compounds. In most cases, variations in the redox state of yeasts modified the formation of all compounds from the same biochemical pathway (isobutanol, isoamyl alcohol, and their derivatives) or chemical class (ethyl esters), irrespective of the cofactors. These coordinated responses were found to be closely linked to the impact of redox status on the availability of intermediates of central carbon metabolism. This was the case for α-keto acids and acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA), which are precursors for the synthesis of many volatile compounds. We also demonstrated that changes in the availability of NADH selectively affected the synthesis of some volatile molecules (e.g., methionol, phenylethanol, and propanoic acid), reflecting the specific cofactor requirements of the dehydrogenases involved in their formation. Our findings indicate that both the availability of precursors from central carbon metabolism and the accessibility of reduced cofactors contribute to cell redox status modulation of volatile compound formation.

Metabolic Impact of Redox Cofactor Perturbations on the Formation of Aroma Compounds in Saccharomyces cerevisiae