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The symbiosis of the highly metal-resistantSinorhizobium meliloti CCNWSX0020 andMedicago lupulina has been considered an efficient tool for bioremediation of heavy metal-polluted soils. However, the metal resistance mechanisms ofS. meliloti CCNWSX00200 have not been elucidated in detail. Here we employed a comparative transcriptome approach to analyze the defense mechanisms ofS. meliloti CCNWSX00200 against Cu or Zn exposure. Six highly upregulated transcripts involved in Cu and Zn resistance were identified through deletion mutagenesis, including genes encoding a multicopper oxidase (CueO), an outer membrane protein (Omp), sulfite oxidoreductases (YedYZ), and three hypothetical proteins (a CusA-like protein, a FixH-like protein, and an unknown protein), and the corresponding mutant strains showed various degrees of sensitivity to multiple metals. The Cu-sensitive mutant (ΔcueO ) and three mutants that were both Cu and Zn sensitive (ΔyedYZ , ΔcusA -like, and ΔfixH -like) were selected for further study of the effects of these metal resistance determinants on bioremediation. The results showed that inoculation with the ΔcueO mutant severely inhibited infection establishment and nodulation ofM. lupulina under Cu stress, while inoculation with the ΔyedYZ and ΔfixH -like mutants decreased just the early infection frequency and nodulation under Cu and Zn stresses. In contrast, inoculation with the ΔcusA -like mutant almost led to loss of the symbiotic capacity ofM. lupulina to even grow in uncontaminated soil. Moreover, the antioxidant enzyme activity and metal accumulation in roots ofM. lupulina inoculated with all mutants were lower than those with the wild-type strain. These results suggest that heavy metal resistance determinants may promote bioremediation by directly or indirectly influencing formation of the rhizobium-legume symbiosis.IMPORTANCE Rhizobium-legume symbiosis has been promoted as an appropriate tool for bioremediation of heavy metal-contaminated soils. Considering the plant-growth-promoting traits and survival advantage of metal-resistant rhizobia in contaminated environments, more heavy metal-resistant rhizobia and genetically manipulated strains were investigated. In view of the genetic diversity of metal resistance determinants in rhizobia, their effects on phytoremediation by the rhizobium-legume symbiosis must be different and depend on their specific assigned functions. Our work provides a better understanding of the mechanism of heavy metal resistance determinants involved in the rhizobium-legume symbiosis, and in further studies, genetically modified rhizobia harboring effective heavy metal resistance determinants may be engineered for the practical application of rhizobium-legume symbiosis for bioremediation in metal-contaminated soils.

applied and environmental microbiology

Transcriptome Response to Heavy Metals in Sinorhizobium meliloti CCNWSX0020 Reveals New Metal Resistance Determinants That Also Promote Bioremediation by Medicago lupulina in Metal-Contaminated Soil