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The monoterpene carvacrol, the major component of oregano and thyme oils, is known to exert potent antifungal activity against the pathogenic yeastCandida albicans . This monoterpene has been the subject of a considerable number of investigations that uncovered extensive pharmacological properties, including antifungal and antibacterial effects. However, its mechanism of action remains elusive. Here, we used integrative chemogenomic approaches, including genome-scale chemical-genetic and transcriptional profiling, to uncover the mechanism of action of carvacrol associated with its antifungal property. Our results clearly demonstrated that fungal cells require the unfolded protein response (UPR) signaling pathway to resist carvacrol. The mutants most sensitive to carvacrol in our genome-wide competitive fitness assay in the yeastSaccharomyces cerevisiae expressed mutations of the transcription factor Hac1 and the endonuclease Ire1, which is required for Hac1 activation by removing a nonconventional intron from the 3′ region ofHAC1 mRNA. Confocal fluorescence live-cell imaging revealed that carvacrol affects the morphology and the integrity of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Transcriptional profiling of pathogenic yeastC. albicans cells treated with carvacrol demonstrated a bona fide UPR transcriptional signature. Ire1 activity detected by the splicing ofHAC1 mRNA inC. albicans was activated by carvacrol. Furthermore, carvacrol was found to potentiate antifungal activity of the echinocandin antifungal caspofungin and UPR inducers dithiothreitol and tunicamycin againstC. albicans . This comprehensive chemogenomic investigation demonstrated that carvacrol exerts its antifungal activity by altering ER integrity, leading to ER stress and the activation of the UPR to restore protein-folding homeostasis.

The Monoterpene Carvacrol Generates Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress in the Pathogenic Fungus Candida albicans