Individual and combined impacts of sulfoxaflor and Nosema bombi on bumblebee ( Bombus terrestris ) larval growth

Sulfoxaflor is a globally important novel insecticide that can have negative impacts on the reproductive output of bumblebee () colonies. However, it remains unclear as to which life-history stage is critically affected by exposure. One hypothesis is that sulfoxaflor exposure early in the colony's life cycle can impair larval development, reducing the number of workers produced and ultimately lowering colony reproductive output. Here we assess the influence of sulfoxaflor exposure on bumblebee larval mortality and growth both when tested in insolation and when in combination with the common fungal parasite following a pre-registered design. We found no significant impact of sulfoxaflor (5 ppb) or exposure (50 000 spores) on larval mortality when tested in isolation but found an additive, negative effect when larvae received both stressors in combination. Individually, sulfoxaflor and exposure each impaired larval growth, although the impact of combined exposure fell significantly short of the predicted sum of the individual effects (i.e. they interacted antagonistically). Ultimately, our results suggest that colony-level consequences of sulfoxaflor exposure for bumblebees may be mediated through direct effects on larvae. As sulfoxaflor is licensed for use globally, our findings highlight the need to understand how novel insecticides impact non-target insects at various stages of their development.