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Tissue engineering combines cells, scaffolds and signalling molecules to synthesize tissues  in vitro . However, the lack of a functioning vascular network severely limits the effective size of a tissue-engineered construct. In this work, we have assessed the potential of reduced graphene oxide (rGO), a non-protein pro-angiogenic moiety, for enhancing angiogenesis in tissue engineering applications. Polyvinyl alcohol/carboxymethyl cellulose (PVA/CMC) scaffolds loaded with different concentrations of rGO nanoparticles were synthesized via lyophilization. Characterization of these scaffolds showed that the rGO-loaded scaffolds retained the thermal and physical properties (swelling, porosity and  in vitro  biodegradation) of pure PVA/CMC scaffolds.  In vitro  cytotoxicity studies, using three different cell lines, confirmed that the scaffolds are biocompatible. The scaffolds containing 0.005 and 0.0075% rGO enhanced the proliferation of endothelial cells (EA.hy926)  in vitro .  In vivo  studies using the chick chorioallantoic membrane model showed that the presence of rGO in the PVA/CMC scaffolds significantly enhanced angiogenesis and arteriogenesis.

Reduced graphene oxide-loaded nanocomposite scaffolds for enhancing angiogenesis in tissue engineering applications