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Summary Single-species conservation and natural reserves seem insufficient for protecting biodiversity to scientists, and conventional forestry seems suspect in sustainability to much of the public. In northwestern USA, comparisons of natural and managed coniferous forests support the idea that both single-species conservation and conventional forestry are unlikely to be successful because biocomplexity is more important than individual habitat elements in maintaining the diversity of forest ecosystems and their capacity to produce useful goods and services. Experiments in inducing heterogeneity into forest canopies support the importance of biocomplexity to various biotic communities including soil organisms, vascular plants, fungi, birds, small mammals and vertebrate predators. Holistic management, however, requires a suite of techniques to direct developmental processes to useful trajectories.

Biocomplexity and restoration of biodiversity in temperate coniferous forest: inducing spatial heterogeneity with variable-density thinning