Phage defense mechanisms and their genomic and phenotypic implications in the fish pathogenVibrio anguillarum

Vibrio anguillarum is a marine bacterium that can cause vibriosis in many fish and shellfish species. Although phage therapy has been proposed as an alternative treatment, the defense mechanisms against phage infection in V. anguillarum and their impact on host function are not fully understood. Here, we examined phage defense strategies in four V. anguillarum strains during exposure to the broad-host-range bacteriophage KVP40. Whole-genome sequences of phage-resistant V. anguillarum isolates showed mutations causing premature stop codons, frameshifts and amino acid changes in the OmpK phage receptor. Moreover, certain phage-resistant variants recovered susceptibility to phage infection following re-culturing, suggesting alternative protection mechanisms, such as formation of biofilm, receptor downregulation and phage inactivation by proteases. Also, the lack of phage production by some strains despite strong phage control suggested an abortive infection mechanism was in play. In addition, examination of the virulence properties and extracellular enzyme secretion of the phage-resistant variants suggested that phage resistance was associated with reduced virulence in V. anguillarum. Altogether, the results identified a variety of phage resistance mechanisms in V. anguillarum including both mutational and non-mutational defenses and demonstrated a significant fitness loss associated with mutational changes, which may explain the selection for alternative defense mechanisms.