Explicit formulation of different receptor–G-protein interactions and effector regulation

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) can create different intracellular signals depending on which G-proteins they couple to and which intracellular signal-integrators, such as adenylyl cyclases, are expressed in the cell. One and the same GPCR can activate multiple G-protein species, generating signals, which either inhibit or amplify each other. Because of this complexity, extraction of mechanistic information from concentration-response curves is not straightforward.