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Background The fern Dicranopteris linearis is a hyperaccumulator of rare earth elements (REEs), aluminium (Al) and silicon (Si). However, the physiological mechanisms of tissue-level tolerance of high concentrations of REE and Al, and possible interactions with Si, are currently incompletely known. Methods A particle-induced X-ray emission (μPIXE) microprobe with the Maia detector, scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive spectroscopy and chemical speciation modelling were used to decipher the localization and biochemistry of REEs, Al and Si in D. linearis during uptake, translocation and sequestration processes. Results In the roots &amp;gt;80 % of REEs and Al were in apoplastic fractions, among which the REEs were most significantly co-localized with Si and phosphorus (P) in the epidermis. In the xylem sap, REEs were nearly 100 % present as REEH3SiO42+, without significant differences between the REEs, while 24–45 % of Al was present as Al-citrate and only 1.7–16 % Al was present as AlH3SiO42+. In the pinnules, REEs were mainly concentrated in necrotic lesions and in the epidermis, and REEs and Al were possibly co-deposited within phytoliths (SiO2). Different REEs had similar spatial localizations in the epidermis and exodermis of roots, the necrosis, veins and epidermis of pinnae of D. linearis. Conclusions We posit that Si plays a critical role in REE and Al tolerance within the root apoplast, transport within the vascular bundle and sequestration within the blade of D. linearis.

Rare earth elements, aluminium and silicon distribution in the fernDicranopteris linearisrevealed by μPIXE Maia analysis